Air Pollution from Coal Fired Power Plants

On April 1, 2013 the U.S. Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) and the U.S. Department of Justice announced a settlement with Dominion Energy Corporation to pay $3.4 million civil penalty and spend $9.75 million on environmental mitigation and community projects and close a coal fired power plant in Indiana. Reducing air pollution from coal-fired power plants and reducing the number of coal fired power plants in the United States, is one of EPA’s National Enforcement Initiatives for 2011-2013.

In addition to the civil penalty and mitigation projects mentioned above Dominion Energy must install or upgrade pollution control technology on two coal fired power plants, and permanently retire their State Line plant. The pollution control upgrades will produce annual reductions at the Brayon Point and Kincaid plants of sulfur dioxide (SO2) and nitrogen oxides (NOx) emissions by 52,000 tons from 2010 levels. The retirement of the State Line plant will result in an additional reduction of 18,000 tons of SO2 and NOx. The State Line power plant was first put into operation in 1929 and overhauled over half a century ago. Dominion Energy decided to close the plant rather than upgrade the pollution control systems announcing that intent back in November 2010 and finally closing the plant on March 31, 2013.

The reason that sulfur dioxide and nitrogen oxides matter to the EPA (and the rest of us) is because reacting in the atmosphere with sunlight and water vapor they form fine particulate pollution. Particles created this way tend to be fine particles with diameters smaller than 2.5 microns, called PM 2.5, which are the most dangerous to human health because the small particulates lodge in the lungs which can have both immediate and long term health impacts.  Combustion engines and coal burning power plants are key contributors to PM2.5 particles, and according to the US EPA and World Health Organization, the smaller, finer pollutant particles measured by PM2.5 are especially dangerous for human health. Studies have shown that there is an increased risk of asthma, lung cancer, cardiovascular problems, birth defects and premature death from these particles smaller than 2.5 microns in diameter.

Coal fired power plant and other sources of pollution like refineries and cars and trucks emit both particulates and precursor pollutants that form particulates in the atmosphere. Air pollution will be significantly reduced in the immediate region of the Dominion power plants and because particulate pollution can travel significant distances downwind, air pollution will be reduced outside the immediate region. The State Line Plant which sits on Lake Michigan and supplied power into the Chicago market had 515 megawatt capacity. According to the Chicago Tribune, Illinois alone added 500 megawatts of wind power in 2010, under DOE subsidized projects. Elimination of the State Line Plant will reduce particulate pollution.

Currently, under the Clean Air Act the US EPA has established both annual and 24-hour PM2.5 air quality standards (as well as standards for other pollutants). The annual standard is 12 ug/m3 (an air quality index, AQI of 50). The 24-hr standard is 35ug/m3 (an AQI of 99). These standards were last revised in December 2012 when the annual standard was lowered from 15 to 12 ug/m3. EPA’s analysis found the new lower standard for the annual exposure will prevent almost 2,000 premature deaths each year in the United States.  According to EPA seven U.S. cities averaged particulate levels higher than the 15 ug/m3, the former standard: Bakersfield, CA; Hanford, CA; Los Angeles, CA; Visalia, CA; Fresno, CA; Pittsburgh, PA; and Phoenix, AZ. The American Lung Association in their latest report states that twenty cities have average year-round particle pollution above the new EPA air quality standard of 12 ug/m3 and most are in California. Though the California cities will remain in non-attainment in the near term, the other cities are anticipated to be able to meet the standard with the implementation of the new regulations for coal fired power plants and other recent EPA regulations which will result in the closing of several power plants and the upgrade of the pollution control systems of the others.

The United States particulate levels are a small fraction of the levels in the worst areas of the world-Beijing, New Delhi, Santiago (Chile), Mexico City, Ulaanbaatar (Mongolia), Cairo (Egypt), Chongqing (China), Guangzhou (China), Hong Kong, and Kabul (Afghanistan).   However, studies have shown that air currents over the Pacific are carrying elevated particulate levels into California presumably from China. Combined with their automobile density and use, California cities might have a difficult time meeting the new PM 2.5 standard despite their strict regulations.

The air pollution in Beijing, home to over 20 million people, can be seen as the smog that wraps the city’s apartment complexes and office buildings on many days. The US Embassy in Beijing has their own PM2.5 monitoring station atop their building and has been reporting via an open Embassy Twitter Feed hourly PM2.5 pollutiondata. The U.S. Embassy reported a series of readings beyond the scale of the equipment air quality index, AQI, (which goes to 500) in fall of 2010. Particulates levels soared to over 700 ug/m3 last June and reportedly had levels hit 1,000 ug/m3 this past winter which sparked emergency measures in the city. All these levels are beyond the AQI scale. 

Current air quality levels from the US Embassy are “moderate,” but as Edward Wong reported in the New York Times and others reported elsewhere data from the 2010 Global Burden of Disease Study found that over 3.2 million premature deaths in 2010 due to PM 2.5 particle air pollution worldwide. In East Asia (China and North Korea) PM 2.5 contributed to 1.2 million deaths in 2010, and in South Asia (including India, Pakistan, Bangladesh and Sri Lanka) it contributed to 712,000 deaths in 2010. These numbers are more than double the deaths estimated by the World Health Organization based on 2004 data when there were fewer coal fired power plants, industrial plants and cars in these areas. Air quality in the urban centers of the United States has improved from the early days of the 20^th century when our nation was the factory of the world. While the   EPA’s regulations tighten and renewable energy subsidies increased to further improve ambient air quality and reduce carbon dioxide and pollutants released in the United States, the fast growing economies of Asia are spewing pollution (not only carbon dioxide) into earth’s atmosphere. 

Beijing Air Pollution off the Charts

Air pollution in Beijing is once more in the news. Last weekend the Air Quality index as measured by the PM2.5 monitoring station atop the US Embassy in Beijing surpassed 700 for 24 hours and the Chinese took a series of emergency response measures in Beijing Sunday to protect children and the old from the high levels of air pollution. The Beijing municipal government reported levels of 500 over the weekend, but the Chinese system does not report numbers beyond 500 which is the top of the official Air Quality scale. Nonetheless, the air quality had exceeded the standards of hazardous according to the U.S. Environmental Protection Agency. For comparison last month the U.S. Environmental Protection Agency announced the reduction in the fine particle pollution, PM2.5, average annual allowed level to 12 micrograms per cubic meter (ug/m3) or an AQI of 39. The 24-hr standard was recently revised to a level of 35 ug/m3 (an AQI of 99) and in truth not all cities in the United States currently meet that standard. Bakersfield, California with a population of about 350,000 has some of the worst air in the United States and does not quite meet that annual level, but their air quality numbers are a fraction of Beijing’s.  

PM2.5 particles can be either directly emitted or formed via atmospheric reactions. Primary particles are emitted from cars, trucks, and heavy equipment, as well as residential wood combustion, forest fires, and agricultural waste burning. The main components of secondary particulate matter are formed when pollutants like NOx and SO2 react in the atmosphere to form particles. These particles are emitted from coal fired power plants and other combustion engines. The increase in automobiles and coal fired power plants (not using the cleanest technology) has created this problem in Beijing. While particulates can travel great distances, this problem is the result of the expansion of the economy without the strict air pollution controls on their coal fired power plants and industry, which was within my lifetime the experience in our own cities.

So, as the Chinese spew more and more carbon dioxide into the earth’s atmosphere they are also spewing , pollutants and particulates which are most concentrated in their own cities. A natural gas fired power plant releases 40% less carbon dioxide and fewer pollutants than a coal fired plant and best technology could significantly reduce the particulates, but is expensive.  As the Chinese expand their air pollution, the United States continues to reduce ours. In the U.S. total toxic air releases in 2011 declined 8 % from 2010, mostly because of decreases in hazardous air pollutant emissions, even while total releases of toxic chemicals increased for the second year in a row, according to the EPA. In the mid-Atlantic Region including my home of Virginia, air data shows a decrease of 32.5 million pounds or 13.8 % of chemical releases as compared to 2010.

Last year the Chinese began publishing the small particle, PM2.5 air pollution data for Beijing . Before last year the Chinese had been reporting their air quality based on PM10, which are particles smaller than 10 micrometers but larger than 2.5 micrometers in diameter. According to the US EPA and World Health Organization, the smaller, finer pollutants measured by PM2.5 are especially dangerous for human health. Studies have shown that people increased risk of asthma, lung cancer, cardiovascular problems, birth defects and premature death from particles smaller than 2.5 microns in diameter that lodge deep in the lungs.

The air pollution in Beijing, home to over 20 million people, is easily seen by the smog that wraps the city’s apartment complexes and office buildings many days. The US Embassy in Beijing has their own PM2.5 monitoring station atop their building and has been reporting via an open Embassy Twitter Feedhourly PM2.5 pollution data. The U.S. Embassy reported a series of readings beyond the scale of the air quality index, AQI, (which goes to 500) in fall of 2010 and levels over 700 this past weekend which sparked emergency measures and public response (over the Internet). Current air quality levels from the US Embassy are 175 which is “ unhealthy”but the crisis seem to be over for the moment.  

EPA Announces Another New Air Standard

From US EPA

On Friday, December 14th in a conference called followed by a press release the U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, EPA, announced the reduction to the fine particle pollution, PM2.5, average annual allowed level to 12 micrograms per cubic meter (ug/m3) from 15 ug/m3. The EPA requires states to monitor air pollution to assess the healthfulness of air quality and ensure that they meet minimum air quality standards, and has some monitoring stations, but not all of the nation is monitored. The US EPA has established both annual and 24-hour PM2.5 air quality standards (as well as standards for other pollutants). The annual standard is now 12 ug/m3 (an AQI of 39). The 24-hr standard was recently revised to a level of 35 ug/m3 (an AQI of 99) and will remain unchanged. States will have until 2020 to meet the revised annual PM2.5 health standard. EPA projections show 99% of U.S. counties with monitoring stations will meet the standard with only 7 counties in California failing to meet the Annual Fine Particle Health Standard of 12 μg/m3. For coarse particles, PM10, EPA is retaining the existing 24-hour standard at 150 μg/m3 the same standard that has been in place since 1987.

Particulate matter is made up of particles that are emitted directly, such as soot and dust, as well as secondary particles that are formed in the atmosphere from reactions of precursor pollutants such as oxides of nitrogen (NOx), sulfur oxides (SOx), volatile organic compounds (VOCs), and ammonia (NH3). Particle are either directly emitted or formed in the atmosphere. Directly-emitted particles come from a variety of sources such as cars, trucks, buses, industrial facilities, power plants, construction sites, tilled fields, unpaved roads, stone crushing, and burning of wood. Other particles are formed indirectly when gases produced by fossil fuel combustion react with sunlight and water vapor. Many combustion sources, such as motor vehicles, power plants, and refineries both emit particles directly and emit precursor pollutants that form secondary particulates. Ammonium nitrate and ammonium sulfate are the principal components of secondary particulates. 

Particulate matter has immediate health impacts: itchy, watery eyes, increased respiratory symptoms such as irritation of the airways, coughing or difficulty breathing and aggravated asthma. Health effects can result from both short-term and long-term exposure to particulate pollution. Exposure to particles can also trigger heart attacks and cause premature death in people with pre-existing cardiac or respiratory disease. People most sensitive to particulate pollution include infants and children, the elderly, and persons with existing heart and lung disease. The particles can travel deep into the lungs, enter the bloodstream, and penetrate into cells. Smaller particles can penetrate deepest, causing the greatest harm. Researchers are still trying to identify which types and sources of particles are most hazardous to human health. Though, particles created from combustion soot tend to be fine particles with diameters smaller than 2.5 microns (PM 2.5) which are the most dangerous because it lodges in the lungs. Dust is mostly coarser particles. 

Since most counties will be in compliance with the new standard based on previous EPA regulations and auto emission standards, EPA estimates that meeting the annual fine particle standard of 12.0 μg/m3 will cost only between $53 million to $350 million, but provide health benefits worth an estimated $4 billion to $9.1 billion per year in 2020. If you would like to read about how these assessments are made see section 5 of “Regulatory Impact Analysis for theFinal Revisions to the National Ambient Air Quality Standards for ParticulateMatter” it is a window into the art and science of projecting benefits. 

Currently, EPA reports that there are 66 counties of the 569 that are monitored in the nation that do not meet the 12 ug/m3 annual standard. You might want to look to see if you live in one on this list, but not every county is monitored. Prince William is not, but Fairfax is. The new PM2.5 standard is the last in a long list of regulations to improve air quality in the United States and have resulted in even the seven worst counties in the country (all in California) having significantly better air quality than the PM2.5 air monitor atop the US Embassy in Beijing reports. Below is the list of air quality rules that have resulted in the tremendous improvement in air quality from 2000-2010 in the chart above and bring the United States to the next level in clean air. 

·        Light-Duty Vehicle Tier 2 Rule (U.S. EPA, 1999)

·        Heavy Duty Diesel Rule (U.S. EPA, 2000)

·        Clean Air Nonroad Diesel Rule (U.S. EPA, 2004)

·        Regional Haze Regulations and Guidelines for Best Available Retrofit Technology Determinations (U.S. EPA, 2005b)

·        NOx Emission Standard for New Commercial Aircraft Engines (U.S. EPA, 2005)

·        Emissions Standards for Locomotives and Marine Compression-Ignition Engines (U.S. EPA, 2008)

·        Control of Emissions for Nonroad Spark Ignition Engines and Equipment (U.S. EPA, 2008)

·        C3 Oceangoing Vessels (U.S. EPA, 2010)

·        Hospital/Medical/Infectious Waste Incinerators: New Source Performance Standards and Emission Guidelines: Final Rule Amendments (U.S. EPA, 2009)

·        Reciprocating Internal Combustion Engines (RICE) NESHAPs (U.S. EPA, 2010)

·        Mercury and Air Toxics Standards (U.S. EPA, 2011)

·        Cross-State Air Pollution Rule (U.S. EPA, 2011)

EPA Rule Targeting Coal Power Plants Voided by Court

On Tuesday the U.S. Court of Appeals for the District of Columbia ruled (2-1) that the Cross State Air Pollution Rule, CSAPR, exceeded the U.S. Environmental Protection Agency’s authority by requiring some state to clean up more than their fair share of pollution. CSAPR defined each State’s emissions reduction goals and the Federal Implementation Plans to obtain those goals at the State level. However, the EPA had used computer modeling to generate emissions “budgets” for each upwind State without regard for the amount of pollution each state was contributing to a downwind problem, but based instead on the cost of remediation. The EPA was requiring the level of cleanup to be based on cost and requiring more work to be done where the cost of capturing a ton of sulfur-dioxide and nitrogen-oxide was the lowest creating a pollution trading system.

CSAPR, requiring reductions of sulfur-dioxide and nitrogen-oxide emissions in coal fired plants, was intended to have gone into effect on January 1, 2012, but the U.S. Court of Appeals District of Columbia Circuit granted a stay to the implementation of the CSAPR pending resolution of the legal challenges. Now the Court of Appeals has found the rule exceeded EPA authority. CSAPR, if it had been implemented would have reduce SO2 emissions by 73% from 2005 levels and NOx emissions by 54% at the approximately 1,000 coal fired electrical generation plants in the eastern half of the country. This rule was intended to help downwind states attain the 24-Hour and/or Annual PM2.5 National Ambient Air Quality Standards (NAAQS) and the 1997 8-Hour Ozone NAAQS. CSAPR would have replace EPA's 2005 Clean Air Interstate Rule (CAIR) which will now remain in effect. Both these rules are intended to allow states to better control their particulate pollution.

According to the Lung Association, the two biggest air pollution threats in the United States are ozone and particle pollution. Other pollutants include carbon monoxide, lead, nitrogen dioxide, sulfur dioxide and a variety of toxic substances including mercury that appear in smaller quantities. The EPA requires states to monitor air pollution under the NAAQS to assess the healthfulness of air quality and ensure that they meet minimum air quality standards. One standard of NAAQS is particulate pollution of 2.5 micrometers or less called PM2.5. Combustion engines and coal burning power plants are key contributors to PM2.5 particles, and according to the US EPA and World Health Organization, the smaller, finer pollutants measured by PM2.5 are especially dangerous for human health. Studies have shown that people are at increased risk of asthma, lung cancer, cardiovascular problems, birth defects and premature death from particles smaller than 2.5 microns in diameter that lodge deep in the lungs.

CASPR was intended to prevent pollution from one state from moving into other states and preventing them from meeting their air quality goals. Several states have been unable to meet the current particulate standard. PM2.5 particles can be either directly emitted or formed via atmospheric reactions. Primary particles are emitted from cars, trucks, and heavy equipment, as well as residential wood combustion, forest fires, and agricultural waste burning. The main components of secondary particulate matter are formed when pollutants like NOx and SO2 react in the atmosphere to form particles.

Currently, under the Clean Air Act the US EPA has established both annual and 24-hour PM2.5 air quality standards (as well as standards for other pollutants). The annual standard is 15 ug/m3 (an air quality index, AQI of 49). The 24-hr standard is 35 ug/m3 (an AQI of 99). In June of 2012 EPA announced that they are proposing stricter air quality particulate standards to go into effect in December 2012. The standard is anticipated to be 12-13 ug/m3. According to American Lung Association State of the Air Report, Pittsburgh, PA had the highest particle pollution in the nation on an annual basis. Seven cities averaged particulate levels higher than the 15 ug/m3 current standard allows: Bakersfield, CA; Hanford, CA; Los Angeles, CA; Visalia, CA; Fresno, CA; Pittsburgh, PA; and Phoenix, AZ. The American Lung Association in their latest report states that twenty cities actually have average year-round particle pollution below the current regulated level, but above the proposed EPA air quality standard of 12-13 ug/m3. The maximum 24 hour standard will remain unchanged at 35 ug/m3. While particulate pollution remains a problem the EPA has not been able to address the problem by regulation targeted at coal fired power plants.

The earth’s atmosphere is interconnected. That is accepted when it comes to carbon dioxide, but it also applies to industrial pollutants and soot. The EPA has estimated that just one-quarter of U.S. measured pollution emissions from coal-burning power plants are deposited within the contiguous U.S. The remainder enters the global cycle. Conversely, current estimates are that less than half of all measured coal pollution emissions deposited within the United States comes from American sources. According to the Mount Bachelor Observatory, Chinese exports include acid rain that falls in China, Korea, and Japan, and pollutants that enter the air stream including sulfates, NOx, black carbon, soot produced by cars, stoves, factories, and crop burning.

Chevron Fire and Air Quality in the East Bay

On the evening of August 6, 2012 a fire broke out at the Chevron Refinery in Richmond, CA. The fire began in a crude oil unit, where there was a leak and was contained that evening, but a small controlled burn was allowed to reduce pressure in the system. Area residents were told to stay inside with windows closed for more than five hours before the all clear was given by the Contra Costa County Health Department.

The Bay Area Air Quality Management District (Air District) responded to the emergency and took eight air samples during the fire. After analysis of the samples for 23 chemical compounds the Air District reported that they found only acrolein levels above the Reference Exposure Level, REL. The Air District noted that throughout the Bay Area acrolein levels are commonly above the REL (not exactly comforting). Reportedly, acrolein levels routinely range between 1 and 4.5 parts per billion. The Air District stated in their news release that “(t)hese concentrations were similar to the “background” levels measured throughout the Bay Area by our monitoring network.”

While this sounds comforting this report by the Air District can be misleading. First of all the data is incomplete and second there are three types of REL, Acute (1 hour exposure), 8 hour (which may be repeated) and chronic. When the Air District spoke of REL they were referring to the acute level, not normal everyday background levels. According to Cal EPA “The acute REL is an exposure that is not likely to cause adverse effects in a human population, including sensitive subgroups, exposed to that concentration for one hour on an intermittent basis.” These health based acute RELs apply to spills, leaks, or other discharges to the ambient air that results from routine operation of a facility and predictable process upsets or leaks.”

Cal EPA determined the concentration level at which no adverse health effects are anticipated for a short term. The acute RELs are based on the most sensitive populations reporting of adverse health effects in the medical and toxicological literature. RELs are designed to protect the most sensitive individuals in the population by the inclusion of margins of safety. Margins of safety are incorporated into the REL to address data gaps and uncertainties, exceeding the REL does not automatically indicate an adverse health impact. The acute REL was the “background” levels that the Air District referred to. More importantly, the data from the Air District is not yet complete. There was no measurement of particulates.

According to reports in the San Francisco Chronicle there was a huge cloud of smoke and hundreds of people went to the hospital to seek treatment. The most likely source of health impacts from the fire is particulate matter from smoke. The Air District does not yet have any data to release on particulate concentrations downwind from the Chevron refinery. For some reason the stationary continuous particulate monitors for the Air District in the local area are upwind of the refinery. The Air District says samples were taken in San Pablo, two miles from the Chevron facility following the fire and are being analyzed for particulate matter levels. Results are expected in the next two weeks, but there is only a small chance that the regularly scheduled monitoring time will have caught the smoke cloud.

Particulate matter is made up of particles that are emitted directly, such as soot and dust, as well as secondary particles that are formed in the atmosphere from reactions of precursor pollutants such as oxides of nitrogen (NOx), sulfur oxides (SOx), volatile organic compounds (VOCs), and ammonia (NH3). Particle are either directly emitted or formed in the atmosphere. Directly-emitted particles come from a variety of sources such as cars, trucks, buses, industrial facilities, power plants, construction sites, tilled fields, unpaved roads, stone crushing, and burning of wood. Other particles are formed indirectly when gases produced by fossil fuel combustion react with sunlight and water vapor. Many combustion sources, such as motor vehicles, power plants, and refineries both emit particles directly and emit precursor pollutants that form secondary particulates. Ammonium nitrate and ammonium sulfate are the principal components of secondary particulates.

Particulate matter has immediate health impacts: itchy, watery eyes, increased respiratory symptoms such as irritation of the airways, coughing or difficulty breathing and aggravated asthma. Health effects can result from both short-term and long-term exposure to particulate pollution. Exposure to particles can also trigger heart attacks and cause premature death in people with pre-existing cardiac or respiratory disease. People most sensitive to particulate pollution include infants and children, the elderly, and persons with existing heart and lung disease. The particles can travel deep into the lungs, enter the bloodstream, and penetrate into cells. Smaller particles can penetrate deepest, causing the greatest harm. Researchers are still trying to identify which types and sources of particles are most hazardous to human health. Though, particles created from combustion soot tend to be fine particles with diameters smaller than 2.5 microns (PM 2.5) which are the most dangerous because it lodges in the lungs. Dust is mostly coarser particles.

According to the Lung Association, the two biggest air pollution threats in the United States are ozone and particle pollution. The United States Environmental Protection Agency, U.S. EPA requires states to monitor air pollution to assess the healthfulness of air quality and ensure that they meet minimum air quality standards. The US EPA has established both annual and 24-hour PM2.5 air quality standards (as well as standards for other pollutants). The annual standard is currently 15 ug/m3 (an AQI of 49). The 24-hr standard was recently revised to a level of 35 ug/m3 (an AQI of 99). The EPA is proposing new air quality particulate standards to go into effect in December 2012. The proposed annual average particle pollution will be lowered to 12-13 ug/m3. The maximum 24 hour standard will remain unchanged at 35 ug/m3. The Bay Area Air District does not have a live feed for their particulate pollution levels like some regions of the state.

The Bay Area's cool, coastal climate safeguards the region against some factors that exacerbate pollution, such as high temperatures and stagnant air flow. Nonetheless, the Bay Area is a nonattainment area due to persistent smog. Santa Clara, Solano and Contra Costa counties had more than 12 high particle pollution days last year of record. A study of children in Southern California showed lung damage associated with long-term particulate exposure, and a multi-city study found decreased lung function in children associated with long term particulate exposure. Many scientific studies have linked exposure to excess particulates to aggravated asthma, increased respiratory symptoms like coughing and difficult or painful breathing, chronic bronchitis, decreased lung function, heart attack and premature death. According to American Lung Association State of the Air Report, Pittsburgh, PA had the highest particle pollution in the nation on an annual basis and Bakersfield, CA had the highest number of days exceeding the daily level. Seven cities averaged particulate levels higher than the 15 ug/m3 current standard allows: Bakersfield, CA; Hanford, CA; Los Angeles, CA; Visalia, CA; Fresno, CA; Pittsburgh, PA; and Phoenix, AZ.